China

This chapter introduces two types of representative works from the Chinese period from roughly the fifth century to the fifteenth century, a period that corresponds to the European Middle Age (although it should be noted that the European periodization is not accurate for non-European cultures). There are many noteworthy works from China during this period. Selected in this chapter are poetry from the Tang dynasty (618-960 C.E.) and vernacular fiction that emerged from the late phase of the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368 C.E.) and the early phase of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644 C.E.).

It is often said that the Tang dynasty was the golden age in Chinese literary history, and poetry was the most glorious literary form of the time. The verse forms of the past were refined, and new poetic forms developed. One new form perfected early in the dynasty, which consists of eight lines of five or seven syllables in accordance with tonal patterns, is called lüshi (“regulated verse”). Another poetic form popular during the period was the jueju (“truncated verse”), which is a shortened version of the lüshi. Du Fu (712-770 C.E.) and Li Bo (701 762 C.E.) from the Tang dynasty are considered the greatest poets in China. Du Fu, who was a high official in the 740s, was highly erudite, and he excelled in all verse forms, but his mastery was the best in the lüshi. When he was young, he flirted with Daoism and travelled with Li Bo, whom he strongly admired. Li Bo, on the other hand, did not sustain a high-ranking position but instead spent a lot of time wandering. Li Bo expressed his Daoist worldview in his deliberately older and freer verse forms, avoiding the lüshi. Other renowned poets during the Tang dynasty include Wang Wei (701-761 C.E.) and Bai Juyi (772-846 C.E.). The Tang dynasty was a period of economic growth and prosperity, and culturally, Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism continued to be influential.

The next major dynasty was the Song dynasty, during which literary productivity increased enormous  ly, thanks to the improvement of printing (invented in the eighth century) and to the establishment of public schools throughout the empire. All the literary genres in verse and prose continued to develop during this period. The Song dynasty was later absorbed by the Yuan (or Mongol) dynasty. During the Yuan dynasty, dramatic literature blossomed, possibly catalyzed by Indian and Iranian theatre models available in this period. Many writers turned to playwriting, especially the musical drama of four or five acts along with prologue, epilogue, and songs. Between the late Yuan dynasty and the early Ming dynasty, particularly noteworthy are the works of fiction in the vernacular. Sanguozhi yanyi (Romance of the Three Kingdoms) and Shuihuzhuan (The Water Margin), both acclaimed as masterpieces of the historical and picaresque (an early novelistic form of adventure narrative) genres, have been controversially attributed to Luo Guanzhong (ca. 1330-1400 C.E.). Romance of the Three Kingdoms is set at the end of the Han dynasty (206 B.C.E-220 C.E.) and the Three Kingdoms period (220-280 C.E.). All through the Song, Yuan, and Ming dynasties, Daoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism continued to be influential, especially increasingly in the new mixtures of these three thoughts.

As already indicated above, the selections in this chapter, Li Bo’s poems and Luo Guanzhong’s Romance of the Three Kingdoms, are good examples of the Tang dynasty and the Yuan/Ming dynasties, respectively. It will be useful to situate these works in their historical and cultural contexts and examine the unique characteristics pertaining to each genre.

Can you point out connections between Daoism and Li Bo’s poems? (Feel free to consult the video resource about Daoism below.)

Select specific poems by Li Bo and develop your own interpretive thesis statement for each poem, along with supporting ideas.

Do some quick research about major events in the Han dynasty, the Three Kingdoms period, and the Yuan/ Ming dynasties, and examine how Luo’s work incorporates elements of earlier and contemporary history and culture.

What philosophical, religious, political, and personal values do you think Luo’s work conveys?

Go to the following website for an educational video about Daoism:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cZiasFYQSj8

Go to the following websites for Chinese history and its timeline:
http://archive.artsmia.org/art-of-asia/history/dynasty-ming.cfm.html http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-13017882

Written by Kyounghye Kwon