Japan

Japan’s classical and medieval periods roughly converge with the European Middle Ages that generally range from the fifth to fifteenth centuries. By the eighth century, the Yamato clan had taken control of Japan, and in 710 C.E. Nara became the first stable capital. During the Nara period (710-784 C.E.), Japan produced two historical chronicles that legitimize Yamato’s authority historically. Records of Ancient Matters (712 C.E.) connects the Yamato clan to Amaterasu, the sun goddess, and Chronicles of Japan (720 C.E.) explains the creation of the Japanese islands. Religiously and philosophically influential by this period were Shintoism (a polytheistic Japanese indigenous religion), Confucianism (which probably arrived in Japan in the fifth century), and Buddhism (adopted via China and Korea in the sixth century). During the Nara period, Japan also produced Florilegium of Cherished Airs (751 C.E.), the Chinese-style poetry of Japan’s earliest extant poetry anthology, and The Man’yōshū (Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves) (ca. 8th century C.E.), the earliest vernacular poetry anthology.

In 794 C.E., the emperor Kammu shifted his capital to Heian, modern-day Kyoto, to stop the involvement of the Buddhist clergy in Nara in the state affairs. In the tenth century, kana, the new phonetic writing system, was developed, which led to the flourishing of rich vernacular prose literature, especially by women writers, although literature was still created by and for the capital elite during the Heian period (794-1185 C.E.). Up to that point, Japan had borrowed Chinese characters for writing. Two of the noteworthy literary works of this time are The Tale of Genji (ca. 1010 C.E.) and The Pillow Book (ca. 1000 C.E.), written by prestigious court ladies, Murasaki Shikibu and Sei Shōnagon respectively. Lady Murasaki and others in the Heian court used a writing system called onnade, i.e., “woman’s hand,” which used Chinese characters, but modified them to be phonological, making composition much easier and thus facilitating writing. Also, waka, a poetic form consisting of thorty-one syllables, was an integral part of the lives of the aristocracy.

The prolonged civil war between the Heike and the Genji and the rise of the warrior class led to the dissolution of the Heian period in the second half of the twelfth century. These factors resulted in the establishment of a military state in Kamakura, southeast of modern-day Tokyo and ushered in the medieval age (1192–1600 C.E.) in Japan. Military clans dominated Japan until the restoration of imperial power in 1868 C.E. The battle between the Heike and the Genji is recorded in the well-known Japanese medieval tale The Tale of the Heike (ca. 1240 C.E.). The military rulers, or shoguns, became patrons of the arts beyond the imperial court. For example, the shoguns supported theatre performances, including Noh theatre. In this cultural milieu, Zeami Mokokiyo (1363-1443 C.E.) was able to produce numerous exemplary Noh plays. Although medieval Japanese literature is still connected to Heian values in many ways, it is also characterized by the influence of the warrior culture and diverse cultural elements beyond the imperial court.

As already indicated above, the selections in this chapter, The Tale of Genji and Zeami’s plays, are good examples of the Heian period and Medieval Japan under military rule, respectively. While marked by the different periods and their different literary characteristics, they also show shared literary, cultural, and religious values.

AS YOU READ, CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:

• In what specific ways do The Tale of Genji and Zeami’s plays reveal the characteristics of the Heian period and the Medieval Japan of military rule?
• How does The Tale of Genji, a novel focusing on a prince and his legacy, reveal a woman’s perspective?
• How might some of Zeami’s plays dramatize and even reconcile conflicts between opposites—e.g., warrior culture vs. Buddhism, warrior ethos vs. Heian aristocratic values, the past vs. the present, the dead vs. the living, etc.?

FOR MORE INFORMATION, SEE THE FOLLOWING SOURCES:

• You can watch the whole performance of the Noh play “Atsumori” on the following website: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3mXuGC16ix4

Written by Kyounghye Kwon