Chapter 9: Political Organization of Space

9.6 Cooperation between States

Supranational Organizations

In order to provide shared military and economic security as a unified entity, states engage in alliances. Military alliances help protect states from common enemies, and economic alliances allow for the free exchange of goods in a larger market. These alliances are also referred to as supranational organizations, and they all involve states giving up some of their sovereign power for the common good.

Figure 9.6.1 Supranational Organizations (Click the image to enlarge it.)
Source: “Figure 2.15 Global Groups with the Big Three Core Areas of North America, Western Europe, and Eastern Asia” by Dr. Royal Berglee, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

9.6.1 The United Nations (UN)

The United Nations  is the largest supranational organization in the world. The UN stands as a cornerstone of international cooperation and diplomacy, comprising 193 member states committed to addressing global challenges through dialogue, negotiation, and collective action. Established in 1945 in the aftermath of World War II, the UN serves as a platform for nations to come together and discuss matters of peace, security, development, human rights, and international law. One powerful example of its function as a supranational alliance is the UN Peacekeeping Operations. These missions deploy troops and personnel from various member states to conflict zones around the world, aiming to maintain peace, protect civilians, and facilitate political processes. This collective effort not only demonstrates the UN’s commitment to global stability but also showcases its ability to leverage diverse national capabilities in pursuit of common goals, transcending individual national interests for the greater good of humanity.

The UN comprises several prominent entities that play crucial roles in its mission to promote peace, security, human rights, and sustainable development globally. Some of the most well-known entities include the Security Council that is responsible for maintaining international peace and security. This Council has primary responsibility for peacekeeping operations and can impose sanctions or authorize the use of force. It also includes the International Court of Justic ethat settles legal disputes between states and gives advisory opinions on legal questions referred by UN organs and specialized agencies. The World Health Organization (WHO) is also part of the UN.

The headquarters of the UN is in New York City, and important subsidiary organizations of the UN include the World Health Organization (WHO), UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Cultural and Cultural Organization) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).

9.6.2 Military Alliances –  NATO and Warsaw Pact

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) comprises 32 states and was developed after World War II to counter the threat of the former Soviet Union. Member states include 30 Western European states (the latest new members were Sweden and Finland) as well as the United States and Canada

Figure 9.6.2 NATO in Europe (Click the image to see it on Wikimedia.)
Source: “NATO 32 Members” by Hasancelikbilek35 via Wikimedia Commons is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.
Figure 9.6.3 The Warsaw Pact members before 1968. Two independent countries were part of the deal: Romania and others. Albania.withdrew after 1968 (the Russian invasion of Czechoslovakia) (Click the image to see it on Wikimedia.)
Source: “Eastern bloc” from Wikimedia Commons is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0.
Figure 9.6.4 Russian Invasion of Ukraine (Click the image to see it on Wikipedia.)
Source: “2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine” by Viewsridge via Wikimedia Commons is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.

When the Soviet Union existed, the Warsaw Pact was a military alliance between the Soviet Union and seven satellite states of Eastern and Central Europe (Figure 9.6.2). The Warsaw Pact disbanded in 1991, and several of the former Soviet states as well as satellite states have subsequently joined NATO. As a result, Russia has felt isolated and vulnerable, and as a result, has been aggressively acting to seize or control territories in states close to its borders. For example, in 2008, Russia engaged in a military conflict in Georgia, one of the former Soviet states, in order to support a separatist movement allied with Russia. In 2014, Russia invaded the peninsula of Crimea, within the territorial boundaries of Ukraine, one of the former states in the Soviet Union. Furthermore, Russia has intervened militarily against the rebel forces fighting in eastern Ukraine.  Then, in Feb 2022,  Russia invaded Ukraine with full force and has been battling the country since. Russia met with unanticipated severe resistance and at this point cannot pull out of this war without losing face.

9.6.3 Military Alliances  – Terrorism

Although terrorists are characterized as non-military, non-state actors, they have a tremendous impact on states around the world and involve allied groups in many countries. Terrorism is the intimidation of a population by violence in order to further political aims. Terrorism is proving to be an enduring global threat, because modern terrorist groups have become more lethal, networked and technologically savvy. Today, groups such as ISIL and al-Qa’ida can control land and hold entire cities hostage. This power mainly stems from their ability to generate revenue from numerous criminal activities with almost complete impunity.

During the time of the 11 September 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, al-Qa’ida numbered around 300 mujahedeen in Afghanistan with the support of the Taliban. Fifteen years later, two global terrorist groups have emerged transforming the global threat landscape — al-Qa’ida and the Islamic State in the Levant (ISIL). At the end of 2015 ISIL controlled 6-8 million people in an area the size of Belgium, and maintained a force of between 30,000- 50,000 fighters while attracting the greatest number of foreign fighters in history.

Figure 9.6.5 Deadliest Terror Groups, 2007-2023
Source: “Attributed attacks by terrorist groups, 2007 to 2023” by Vision of Humanity.

States worldwide are being challenged by criminal-terrorist networks; especially in prisons, urban areas, and cyberspace. Prisons have become the place where terrorists and criminals meet, plan, plot, and recruit. The most prominent example is Abu-Bakhr al- Baghdadi, the leader, and self- declared caliph of ISIL, who spent formative time at Camp Bucca, a US-controlled prison in Iraq. This is where he met Samir Abd Muhammad al-Khlifawi, a former colonel in the intelligence service of Saddam Hussein’s air defence forces, and who was the architect of the ISIL strategy for the takeover of towns, focusing heavily on surveillance and espionage. The Iraqi government estimates that 17 of the 25 most important ISIL leaders spent time in US prisons in Iraq, planning the creation of ISIL and its ideology.

In the West, prisons have also become a networking and learning environment where terrorists and criminals can share ideology and build networks. A large percentage of terrorist recruits – some estimates are as high as 80 percent – have criminal records varying from petty to serious crimes. The recruitment of criminals provides terrorists with the skill sets needed to succeed: a propensity to carry out violent acts, ability to act discreetly, and access to criminal markets for weapons, and bomb-building resources. A study on extremists who plotted attacks in Western Europe found that 90 percent of the cells were involved in income-generating criminal activities and half were entirely self-financed: only one in four received funding from international terrorist organizations.

9.6.4 Major Terrorist Organizations

9.6.4.1  Al-Qaeda

This is a global militant organization founded in 1988 by Osama bin Laden and other extremist leaders, gained worldwide notoriety for its involvement in numerous terrorist attacks. Among its most infamous acts was the September 11, 2001, attacks on the United States, which killed thousands and prompted a global crackdown on terrorism. Beyond 9/11, Al-Qaeda orchestrated or inspired attacks in various regions, including the 1998 bombings of U.S. embassies in East Africa and the 2002 bombings in Bali. Its modus operandi often involved suicide bombings, coordinated strikes against Western interests, and efforts to destabilize governments seen as cooperating with Western powers. Over time, Al-Qaeda’s decentralized structure allowed it to operate through regional affiliates and sympathizers, further complicating global efforts to eradicate its influence.

In recent years, Al-Qaeda has adapted its strategies amidst intense counterterrorism efforts and competition from other extremist groups like ISIS. While its central leadership has been significantly weakened, affiliates such as Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) and Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) continue to pose threats in their respective regions. Al-Qaeda’s current focus includes exploiting regional conflicts, recruiting fighters, and using propaganda to radicalize individuals globally. Despite losing territorial control and facing internal divisions, Al-Qaeda remains a potent symbol of extremist ideology, influencing smaller groups and individuals committed to its jihadist cause. International efforts to combat Al-Qaeda persist, emphasizing both military operations and preventive measures aimed at disrupting its networks and ideological appeal.

9.6.4.2  Taliban

This group originally formed in the early 1990s amidst the chaos of Afghanistan’s civil war and rose to prominence for its strict interpretation of Islamic law (Sharia) and its campaign to establish a fundamentalist Islamic state. By the late 1990s, the Taliban controlled much of Afghanistan, imposing harsh social restrictions, particularly on women, and harboring terrorist groups like Al-Qaeda. Their rule was characterized by brutal enforcement of their version of Sharia, including public executions and amputations. The Taliban’s refusal to extradite Osama bin Laden, the mastermind of the 9/11 attacks, led to the U.S.-led invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, resulting in the ousting of the Taliban regime.

In recent years, the Taliban has regrouped and re-emerged as a significant player in Afghan politics and security. Following years of insurgency against the Afghan government and international forces, the Taliban intensified its military campaigns, gaining control of substantial rural areas and mounting attacks on urban centers. They’ve capitalized on local grievances, corruption, and discontent with the Afghan government to bolster their ranks and influence. Diplomatic efforts, including peace talks with the United States and negotiations with Afghan factions, have aimed to find a political settlement. Despite this, violence continues unabated, with the Taliban continuing to pursue their vision of an Islamic emirate, while engaging in sporadic talks and navigating international diplomatic pressures.

9.6.4.3  ISIS/ISIL

ISIS, also known as ISIL (Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant), emerged as a radical jihadist group in 2013, seizing large swathes of territory in Iraq and Syria and declaring a caliphate under their leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi. Known for their extreme brutality, including mass executions, beheadings, and enslavement of women, ISIS carried out numerous terrorist attacks globally, including in Europe and the Middle East. They exploited social media for propaganda and recruitment, drawing fighters from around the world.

Currently, ISIS has lost most of its territorial control due to military campaigns by Iraqi and Syrian forces, supported by international coalitions. Despite these losses, ISIS remains active through clandestine networks, insurgency tactics, and affiliated groups in various regions. They continue to perpetrate attacks, maintain an online presence for recruitment and radicalization, and seek to re-establish a foothold amid ongoing instability in Iraq and Syria. International efforts persist in combating ISIS and preventing its resurgence, emphasizing both military operations and efforts to counter its ideological appeal and propaganda.

9.6.4.5 Boko Haram

This militant group founded in northeastern Nigeria in 2002, has carried out a campaign of violence aimed at establishing an Islamic state governed by Sharia law. Initially focused on local grievances, it escalated into widespread attacks, including bombings, kidnappings, and raids on villages. Boko Haram gained international attention in 2014 with the abduction of over 270 schoolgirls from Chibok, sparking global outrage and highlighting its brutal tactics. Over the years, the group pledged allegiance to ISIS in 2015, further complicating efforts to contain its influence.

Currently, Boko Haram operates primarily in Nigeria’s northeastern region, although its factional divisions have emerged, with splinter groups like the Islamic State West Africa Province (ISWAP) gaining prominence. Despite military operations and regional efforts to combat them, Boko Haram and ISWAP continue to conduct attacks, target civilians, and exploit local grievances to maintain their influence and control. The humanitarian impact remains severe, with widespread displacement and humanitarian crises affecting millions in the region. Efforts to counter their activities remain a critical challenge for regional governments and international partners seeking stability and peace in the affected areas.

While terrorists have created insecurity in the ‘real’ world for decades, there has been a major paradigm shift for the last 15 years: terrorists are now engaged in the world’s greatest open space, the internet. ISIL’s growing global influence marks the first time in history that a terrorist group has held sway in both the real and virtual worlds. Maybe one of the most important developments is the increasing collaboration of criminal and terrorist networks. While criminals used to focus only on revenue generation and terrorists were driven by political motives, we are currently witnessing a convergence of terrorism and crime. These new hybrid groups are driven by both, revenue generation and political motives, resulting in criminal and terrorist groups with historically unprecedented resources and transgressive aims. The consequence of this expanding threat can be measured by the way in which both al-Qa’ida and ISIL have increased their sphere of influence worldwide.

One way to counter such terror activities is to increase vigilance. To this effect, the Global Terrorism Index (GTI)  provides extensive analyses that assess the terrorism impact across 163 countries, encompassing 99.7% of the global population.

Produced by the Institute for Economics & Peace (IEP), the GTI utilizes data from the Terrorism Tracker and other sources. It generates a composite score to rank countries in terms of their susceptibility to terrorism. Scores range from 0 to 10, where 0 indicates no terrorism impact and 10 signifies the highest measurable impact. Check the map in the link; it is quite impressive!

Given the substantial investments governments worldwide make in counter-terrorism efforts, it is crucial to aggregate and analyze available data to comprehensively understand its characteristics. One of GTI’s primary objectives is to scrutinize these trends and foster constructive discussions regarding terrorism’s future and the necessary policy responses.

9.6.5 Economic Alliances – EU – NAFTA – ASEAN

One of the most prominent economic alliances in the world is the European Union (EU), which consists of 27 member states (Figure 9.15). What began as the European Community (EC) in 1958, the European Union has grown significantly from the original six members and now includes seven Eastern European states that were formerly in the Soviet Union.

Map of the European Union, including all member countries, official candidate countries, and potential candidate countries, as of April 2023, updated for the recognition of Ukraine, Moldova, and Bosnia as membership candidates, and Georgia as a potential candidate (colorblind accessible). Also file under: Map of European Union Member Countries.
Figure 9.6.6 The European Union. Map (Click the image to enlarge it.)
Source: Map by Evan Centanni, from blank map by Ssolbergj. License: CC BY-SA

The EU has developed a common currency, the euro, for all member countries and a European Central Bank. Furthermore, at most boundaries, a passport is not required to enter another country.

The European Union recognizes 24 official languages and offers simultaneous translation among the official languages to any member state that requests it. The EU only produces legislation and policy documents of “major public importance” in all of its official languages; other documents are translated only into the languages relevant to each document.

Translation is just one of the significant expenditures associated with integration. Under the rules of the EU, the richer countries must subsidize (provide financial support to) the poorer ones; therefore, the entry of eastern European states adds to the financial burden on the wealthier western and northern European members. A major economic downturn at the end of the first decade of the twenty-first century and associated financial crises in Greece, Ireland, Spain, and Portugal, put the EU under unprecedented pressure. The citizens of wealthier countries such as Germany began to question why they should foot the bill for countries that have not (at least in German eyes) managed their finances responsibly.

Another issue confronting the EU is whether or not to allow Turkey to join, as Greece has long-standing disputes with Turkey over territory in Cyprus, and the Turkish central government has been accused of anti-democratic practices, particularly in treating its largest minority group-the Kurds.

An important economic alliance for the United States is the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Established in 1992, this alliance integrates the United States, Mexico and Canada and facilitates the flow of goods and services across borders. The Trump administration has repeatedly criticized this agreement, as manufacturers have relocated production to Mexico which has resulted in the loss of manufacturing jobs in America. Whether or not the United States withdraws from NAFTA or simply renegotiates the agreement remains to be seen.

File:Map of ASEAN member states.svg
Figure 9.6.7 ASEAN member countries. (Click the image to see it on Wikimedia.)
Suorce: “Map of ASEAN member states,” derivative work: Hariboneagle927 is in the public domain.

Another significant alliance is the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), a regional intergovernmental organization comprising ten member states: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Established on August 8, 1967, ASEAN aims to promote economic growth, social progress, cultural development, and regional stability among its members. The union serves as a platform for cooperation on political, economic, social, and cultural issues, fostering dialogue and collaboration through various mechanisms such as the ASEAN Summit and ASEAN Ministerial Meetings. Economically, ASEAN facilitates trade and investment through initiatives like the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) and enhances connectivity through projects like the ASEAN Infrastructure Fund. Politically, it promotes regional stability and conflict resolution through its mechanisms and dialogues. Socially, ASEAN promotes people-to-people exchanges and cooperation in areas such as education, healthcare, and disaster management. Overall, ASEAN plays a crucial role in enhancing regional integration, cooperation, and collective security, benefiting its member states and contributing to peace and prosperity in Southeast Asia and beyond.

9.6.6 Environmental Alliances – IPPC

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the United Nations body for assessing the science related to climate change. The IPCC compiles thorough Assessment Reports detailing scientific, technical, and socio-economic insights into climate change, its impacts, future risks, and strategies to mitigate its progression. Additionally, it develops Special Reports focusing on subjects prioritized by member governments, along with Methodology Reports that offer guidelines for constructing greenhouse gas inventories.

Figure 9.6.8 Organizational chart of the IPCC.
Source: The Working Groups and Task Force of The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

The IPCC was established to provide policymakers with periodic scientific evaluations on climate change, its consequences, prospective risks, and proposals for adaptation and mitigation measures. It identifies where there is agreement in the scientific community on topics related to climate change, and where further research is needed. The reports are drafted and reviewed in several stages, thus guaranteeing objectivity and transparency.  The IPCC does not conduct its own research.

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Introduction to Cultural Geography Copyright © 2024 by Barbara Crain is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

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