At the time of the American Revolution, three principal dialects of English were spoken corresponding to the differences among the original settlers who populated the East Coast and who came from various British corners using their dialect. Thus we have:

1. Northern English – These settlements in this area were established and populated almost entirely by English settlers. Nearly two-thirds of the colonists in New England were Puritans from East Anglia in southwestern England. The region consists of the following states: Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Maine, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Vermont, New York and New Jersey.
2. Southern English – About half of the speakers came from southeast England. Some of them came from diverse social class backgrounds, including deported prisoners, indentured servants, political and religious persecuted groups. The following states comprise the region: Virginia, Delaware, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia.
3. Midlands English – The settlers of this region included immigrants from diverse backgrounds. Those who settled in Pennsylvania were predominantly Quakers from northern England. Some individuals from Scotland and Ireland also settled in Pennsylvania as well as in New Jersey and Delaware. Immigrants from Germany, Holland and Sweden also migrated to this region and learned their English from local English-speaking settlers. This region is formed by the following areas/states: Upper Ohio Valley, Pennsylvania, Maryland, West Virginia, western areas North and South Carolina.
4. Western Dialects – Western territories were settled by Midlanders for the most part. Hence, dialects here are not as distinctive as those along the East Coast.

Dialects of American English have continued to evolve over time and place. Regional differences in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar do not suggest that a type of linguistic convergence is underway, resulting in some type of “national dialect” of American English. Even with the homogenizing influences of radio, television, internet, and social media, many distinctive varieties of English can be identified.

In general Northern English is spoken by nearly two-thirds of the country.

Dialects that are geographically close tend to be the most similar due to greater spatial interaction. However, as you travel farther, the dialects become increasingly different. When considering all these dialects as part of one language, it raises the question: which dialect represents the language? A language encompasses a collection of dialects, and the perception of one as the “true” language often stems from it being the dialect we speak or the one designated as standard by a government. Additionally, dialects frequently have distinct differences in vocabulary.

6.4.4 Dialects vs. Accents

The basic distinction is that a dialect differs from its base language in vocabulary, grammar and spelling, and pronunciation whereas an accent differs from its base language in terms of pronunciation style. Think of it like this: dialects are place-based variations of language and the aspect of a dialect that includes variations in pronunciations is called an accent. See the video below for more and consider how dialects and accents are tied to conceptions of identity cross many scales.

6.4.5 Pidgin, Creole and Cajun

A pidgin language is a simplified language that emerges when two people who each speak different languages come up with another language by which they can communicate. That new language is a pidgin, or sometimes just called pidgin. For example, if I speak Spanish and you speak Korean, we may come up with a simplified pidgin language drawing from each of our own languages that, mixed with gestures and other symbols, is mutually intelligible to each of us. We may also draw from a language that we both already know, like a lingua franca, and use that as base for our simplified communication.

Pidgins are very geographical in nature because they emerge as people traverse through space, arriving in a place where they don’t speak the language. Pidgins have historically sprung up along historic trading routes and at ports where people needed to communicate in order to conduct business and interact. For this reason, pidgins are often also called contact languages. Check out the video below and ponder the accompanying questions.

A Creole is a formalized, developed pidgin that has a complete grammar and vocabulary and has native speakers, meaning that babies are born who grow up learning the Creole language (sometimes just called Creole) as their first language.

The state of Louisiana boasts perhaps the most fascinating linguistic landscape in the US. Some residents of southern Louisiana have resisted full linguistic integration into the broader United States. Their ability to maintain this linguistic refuge is largely due to the geographic isolation created by the region’s swamplands. Louisiana Creole, spoken by people who identify as Creoles, is a creolized language combining French and African languages, with a likely influence of Haitian Creole. This Louisiana creole  also refers to a style of cuisine. There is  also Haitian Creole, spoken in Haiti.

Additionally, many people in the region speak Cajun French, which is less creolized and more a significantly altered dialect stemming from Canadian French mixing with English. Linguistic differences among French speakers in Louisiana are also reflected in the distinct styles of Cajun and Zydeco music, as well as their unique ethnic identities.

Many Creoles emerged within maroons  or communities of Africans (often mixed with Indigenous peoples) who were formerly enslaved or were descendants of formerly enslaved parents. One such example of this is Garifuna,  referring to a language and a group of people who were marooned in the Caribbean after a slave-ship shipwreck. Read more about the status of the language and group here and note how much overlap there is between language, culture, identity, and even cuisine and how these aspects are written about in the article.

6.4.6 Ethnic Groups and Language Variations

An ethnicity, or ethnic group, is a community of people who identify with each other based on a mix of shared cultural heritage, ancestry, history, country of origin, language, or dialect. In the United States, these groups are often incorrectly referred to as “races,” despite the fact that biological races do not exist. This misconception has historically led to racism and discrimination. Due to the social implications and biological inaccuracy of the term “race,” it is more accurate and appropriate to use the terms ethnicity or ethnic group. Language varieties are often linked to ethnic groups when their members use language as a marker of solidarity, distinguishing themselves from the larger, sometimes oppressive, language group, especially when they are a minority.

A well-known example of an oppressed ethnic group with a distinctive dialect is African-Americans. They have a unique history among U.S. minorities, marked by centuries of enslavement and subsequent decades under Jim Crow laws, which restricted their rights even after emancipation. The Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1968 and other laws granted African-Americans legal rights to access public places and housing, but these laws alone could not eradicate racism and discrimination, which persist among the white majority. While it is no longer “politically correct” to openly express racism, negative attitudes towards African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) are more commonly accepted. These attitudes often target the speakers of AAVE rather than the language itself.

AAVE, like any language variety, is a complex, rule-governed, and grammatically consistent dialect of American English with a distinctive history. A widely accepted hypothesis about the origins of AAVE is that when Africans were captured and brought to the Americas, they brought their languages with them. Some of them already spoke a form of English known as a pidgin (see above). Not all African-Americans speak AAVE, and people of other ethnicities also speak it. For example, the rapper Eminem, a white man who grew up in an African-American neighborhood in Detroit, speaks AAVE. Present-day AAVE is diverse, with many regional and class variations. Common features include the dropped /r/ typical of some New York dialects and the pronunciation of the “th” sound in words like “this” and “that” as a /d/ sound, resulting in “dis” and “dat.” Many features of AAVE are present in other English dialects, but AAVE faces more severe stigmatization. Interestingly, AAVE and southern white English dialects share many features. During the centuries of slavery in the South, African-American slaves often outnumbered whites on plantations, likely influencing the speech of both groups. Within the African-American community, opinions on the acceptability of AAVE are divided. The dialect’s survival may be attributed to the historical oppression of African-Americans, resisting the disapproval of the majority white society.

6.4.7 Gender and Language Variation Across Cultures

In every culture, gender role expectations influence how people speak based on their sex and gender identity. In the United States, men are generally expected to speak in a low, monotone pitch, which is seen as masculine. If men do not sound sufficiently masculine, they may be negatively labeled as effeminate. Women, on the other hand, have more freedom to use their full pitch range, often doing so when expressing emotions like excitement. Female television news announcers often modulate their pitch to sound more like men to be perceived as more credible. Women also tend to use minimal responses, such as “m-hm,” “yeah,” and “I see,” more frequently than men in conversations. They are also more likely to face their conversation partners and use more eye contact, which is why women often feel that men do not listen to them.

Gendered variations within the English language are exemplified by terms such as “workman” and “stewardess.” These terms reflect traditional gender roles and often imply specific gender associations. “Workman,” for instance, traditionally refers to a male worker, while “stewardess” is used for a female flight attendant. Such gendered language has been increasingly recognized as outdated and exclusive, leading to a shift toward more gender-neutral terms like “worker” and “flight attendant” to promote inclusivity and avoid reinforcing gender stereotypes

Different societies have varied standards for gendered speech styles. In Madagascar, men use a flowery style of speech, employing proverbs, metaphors, and riddles to make points indirectly and avoid confrontation. Women, however, speak bluntly and directly. Both genders admire men’s speech and view women’s speech as inferior. Men often ask their wives to convey negative messages. Women control marketplaces where tourists bargain, as men’s indirect speech makes bargaining ineffective. This contributes to the relative economic independence of Malagasy women.

In Japan, women were traditionally expected to be subservient to men and to speak in a “feminine” style suitable for their roles as wives and mothers. However, as more women join the workforce and attain positions of power, they must navigate the challenge of maintaining their feminine identities while expressing authority. This balancing act is also seen in the United States to some extent. Even Margaret Thatcher, the former Prime Minister of the UK, took speech therapy lessons to “feminize” her language while maintaining authority.