Chapter 5. Cultural Patterns and Processes
5.6 Assimilation, Acculturation, Cultural Appropriation
5.6.1 Acculturation
Acculturation can be defined as the process through which individuals or groups from one culture go as they come into contact with and adopt certain practices, values, and behaviors from another culture. They tend to still retain their original cultural identity. This can involve a two-way exchange where both cultures influence each other.
When immigrants move to a new country, they often adopt the language and some customs of the host country while still maintaining their own cultural traditions and practices.Living in an ethnic enclave, e.g. an ethnic neighborhood, may make such in
dividuals and/or groups relatively comfortable while interacting with members of the dominant culture.
Figure 5.6.1 below shows areas where Vietnamese is spoken more commonly than elsewhere. It is possible that there might be ethnic enclaves in those areas (in California, Washington state and even in Virginia) with more speakers.
Source: “Americans with Vietnamese Ancestry by state” by “Abbasi786786” via Wikimedia Commons is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.
Figure 5.6.2 displaying Americans with Arab ancestry shows that there are certain states with more people of that ancestry than others. The areas in Michigan and New Jersey respectively contain major centers for Arabic speakers that are also famous for their amazing souks (= markets).
Source: “Americans with Arab Ancestry by state” by Abbasi786786 via Wikimedia Commons is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.
Please notice that these maps show ancestry; it is totally possible that the Arab and also Vietnamese speakers counted are assimilated but speak the language of their parents alongside English.
5.6.2 Assimilation
Assimilation can be defined as the process by which individuals or groups from one culture gradually adopt the practices, values, and behaviors of another culture, often losing their original cultural identity in the process. This typically results in the minority culture becoming absorbed into the dominant culture.
For example, in the mid 20th century, many immigrants to the United States from Germany did not want to be associated with World War II and its aftermath so many tried to assimilate by learning English, adopting American customs, and gradually abandoning their native languages and traditions as much as possible to become and be seen as fully integrated into American society. Particularly children of German parents tried to hide their ancestry for those reasons.
Present-Day Attempts at Forced Assimilation of ‘Undesirable Cultures’
China: The forced assimilation of the Uyghurs in China, a predominantly Muslim ethnic minority in China’s Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, involves a range of coercive measures implemented by the Chinese government. Central to these efforts are the so-called “re-education” camps, where over a million Uyghurs have been detained. In these camps, Uyghurs are subjected to indoctrination programs designed to suppress their religious beliefs and cultural practices. They are forced to renounce Islam, learn Mandarin, and pledge loyalty to the Chinese Communist Party. Reports of harsh conditions, including physical and psychological abuse, aim to erode Uyghur identity and replace it with a homogenized Chinese identity. This systematic approach extends beyond the camps, with increased surveillance, restrictions on religious practices, and efforts to dismantle traditional Uyghur cultural institutions.
Outside the camps, the Chinese government has implemented policies that further undermine Uyghur culture and facilitate assimilation. These include promoting interethnic marriages between Uyghurs and Han Chinese, incentivizing Han Chinese migration to Xinjiang, and discouraging the use of the Uyghur language in education and public life. Uyghur religious sites, such as mosques, have been demolished or repurposed, and traditional Uyghur customs are actively suppressed. Children are often separated from their families and placed in state-run boarding schools where they receive indoctrination. The combined effect of these policies is a comprehensive effort to erase Uyghur cultural and religious identity, integrating them into the broader Han Chinese culture and ensuring loyalty to the state, which has drawn international condemnation for human rights abuses.
Russia: Forced assimilation in Russia has historically targeted various ethnic minorities, aiming to integrate them into the dominant Russian culture and suppress distinct cultural identities. This assimilation policy involves a range of coercive measures, including the suppression of minority languages and cultural practices. The Russian government promotes the use of the Russian language in all public and educational settings, often at the expense of minority languages. This linguistic dominance is enforced through the education system, where Russian is the primary medium of instruction, and minority languages receive limited or no support. Cultural practices, traditions, and religious expressions that do not align with the dominant Russian Orthodox culture are often marginalized or actively suppressed. This approach seeks to create a homogenized national identity, diluting the distinct cultural identities of ethnic minorities.
In addition to linguistic and cultural suppression, economic and social pressures also play a significant role in forced assimilation. Ethnic minorities in Russia often face systemic discrimination, limiting their access to economic opportunities and social mobility. This discrimination pushes minorities to conform to the dominant culture to improve their economic prospects and social standing. Furthermore, the Russian government employs surveillance and policing measures to monitor and control minority communities, branding any cultural or religious divergence as a potential threat to national security. By promoting a narrative of national unity and prioritizing state security, the government justifies its assimilation policies, which effectively marginalize minority identities and integrate them into the broader Russian society. This comprehensive approach to forced assimilation aims to erode the unique cultural and religious identities of ethnic minorities, ensuring their conformity to the dominant Russian culture.
Burma/Myanmar: Forced assimilation in Burma, also known as Myanmar, has historically targeted ethnic minorities in an effort to integrate them into the dominant Burman culture. The Burmese government has implemented policies aimed at suppressing the cultural and linguistic diversity of minority groups, including the Karen, Rohingya, Shan, and others. These policies have included restrictions on language use, religious practices, and traditional customs, often enforced through coercive measures and violence. The goal has been to homogenize the population under a Burman-centric national identity, marginalizing minority cultures and denying them autonomy. Forced assimilation in Burma has exacerbated ethnic tensions, contributed to conflict, and perpetuated human rights abuses against minority communities.
Past Attempts at Forced Assimilation of Indigenous Cultures
Throughout the 1800s and early 1900s, the U.S. government implemented an official policy of assimilation that actively suppressed Native American traditions and replaced them with those of the dominant culture. The federal government aimed to integrate indigenous peoples into mainstream American society, seeking to transform Native Americans into “Americans” rather than maintaining their identities as “Natives” or “Indians.” Similar strategies were employed by Canadians, Australians, Russians, and other colonial powers, who used educational institutions, religious organizations, and government agents to discourage indigenous customs and erode local cultures. Have a look at some of the example boxes below.
Native Americans in the United States
As of now the United States has not publicly apologized for its residential school system and the trauma it provided. It has only recently begun a thorough examination of the harms wrought by forced assimilation of Native Americans. On Thursday, June 13, 2024, the US Catholic Bishops formally apologized for ‘trauma’ inflicted on Native American communities.
Aboriginals in Australia
The Australian government implemented a series of policies aimed at assimilating Aboriginal people and “half-castes” (a term historically used to describe individuals of mixed Aboriginal and European ancestry) throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries. These policies were driven by a belief in the superiority of European culture and a desire to absorb Aboriginal people into mainstream Australian society. A good movie to watch to learn more is The Rabbit-Proof Fence.
Stolen Generations
One of the most infamous aspects of these assimilation policies was the forced removal of Aboriginal and mixed-race children from their families, a practice that became known as the “Stolen Generations.” Government authorities, often through the use of missions and reserves, took children from their homes and placed them in institutions or with non-Aboriginal foster families. These children were often taught to reject their Aboriginal heritage and were raised to adopt European customs and values. The aim was to eradicate Aboriginal culture and identity, believing that this would lead to the “improvement” and integration of Aboriginal people into white society.
Institutionalization and Restriction
In addition to removing children, the government imposed strict controls on the lives of Aboriginal people. Many Aboriginal families were forcibly relocated to reserves and missions where their movements, employment, and personal lives were tightly regulated. On these reserves, Aboriginal people were subject to curfews, required to obtain permission to marry, and often had their wages controlled by the state. The policy of segregation and control was justified under the guise of protection, but in reality, it aimed to isolate and manage Aboriginal populations to facilitate their gradual absorption into the dominant culture.
Cultural Suppression
The Australian government’s policies also extended to the suppression of Aboriginal cultural practices. Traditional languages, ceremonies, and customs were discouraged or outright banned. The goal was to replace Aboriginal culture with European values and practices, furthering the objective of assimilation.
These policies had devastating effects on Aboriginal communities, leading to the breakdown of families, loss of cultural heritage, and widespread trauma that persists to this day. The impact of the Stolen Generations, in particular, has left deep scars, with many individuals and families still grappling with the emotional and psychological consequences of these government actions.
In recent decades, there has been increased recognition of the harm caused by these policies. The Australian government has made formal apologies, such as the National Apology to the Stolen Generations delivered by Prime Minister Kevin Rudd in 2008. He apologized specifically for the government’s policy of taking Aboriginal children from their homes and placing them in residential schools—a policy that lasted from the 1800s until the late 1960s. Efforts are ongoing to address the historical injustices and support the cultural and social recovery of Aboriginal communities.
First Nations and Inuit in Canada
The Canadian government implemented a series of forced assimilation policies targeting First Nations and Inuit peoples from the late 19th century well into the 20th century. These policies aimed to eradicate Indigenous cultures, languages, and social structures, and integrate Indigenous peoples into mainstream Canadian society. The following are key aspects of these assimilation efforts:
Residential Schools
One of the most notorious aspects of forced assimilation was the residential school system. Established in the late 1800s, these schools were government-funded and operated primarily by Christian churches. Indigenous children were forcibly removed from their families and communities and placed in these boarding schools. The goal was to “civilize” and Christianize the children by isolating them from their cultural backgrounds. The harsh conditions, physical and emotional abuse, and neglect suffered by many children in these schools left lasting trauma on individuals and communities.
The Indian Act
The Indian Act, first passed in 1876, was a piece of legislation that provided the Canadian government with extensive control over various aspects of First Nations life. It governed many elements of First Nations identity, land, and governance. The Act imposed restrictions on traditional practices, such as potlatches and other ceremonies, in an attempt to suppress Indigenous cultures.
The Act also enforced the enfranchisement policy, which encouraged or coerced Indigenous people to relinquish their Indian status and rights in exchange for Canadian citizenship. This process aimed to eliminate the distinct status of First Nations people and fully integrate them into Canadian society.
Relocation and Community Disruption
The Canadian government also implemented policies of relocating Indigenous communities. For the Inuit, the High Arctic Relocation of the 1950s involved moving Inuit families from northern Quebec to the High Arctic, ostensibly to assert Canadian sovereignty in the region. These relocations were often poorly planned and executed, resulting in severe hardship, food insecurity, and disconnection from traditional ways of life.
The Sixties Scoop
From the 1950s to the 1980s, thousands of Indigenous children were removed from their families by child welfare agencies in a practice known as the Sixties Scoop. These children were placed in foster care or adopted by non-Indigenous families, leading to a loss of cultural identity and severing of family ties. This practice furthered the government’s assimilation goals by removing children from their cultural context and raising them in non-Indigenous environments.
As adults, many of the children, at least those that had knowledge of where they came from, returned to their ancestral grounds but had to relearn their native language. They often speak these native languages as a second language.
In general, high rates of mental health issues, substance abuse, and social challenges in many Indigenous communities can be traced back to these policies.
In recent years, Canada has made efforts to address these historical injustices. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), established in 2008, documented the experiences of residential school survivors and provided a comprehensive report with calls to action to promote healing and reconciliation. The government has also issued formal apologies, such as the 2008 apology by Prime Minister Stephen Harper: “We now recognize that it was wrong to separate children from rich and vibrant cultures and traditions, that it created a void in many lives and communities, and we apologize for having done this. We now recognize that, in separating children from their families, we undermined the ability of many to adequately parent their own children and sowed the seeds for generations to follow.” Speaking to the indigenous people seated in the House of Commons, he continued, “Not only did you suffer these abuses as children, but as you became parents, you were powerless to protect your own children from suffering the same experience, and for this we are sorry.”
Canada also continues to work on improving relations with Indigenous communities and supporting their cultural revitalization efforts.
5.6.3 Cultural Appropriation
A local culture may distinguish itself in rural and urban areas not only to preserve its customs but also to prevent cultural appropriation. Cultural appropriation occurs when other cultures adopt and utilize local customs and knowledge for their own gain. This is a significant concern for local cultures because outsiders often exploit their knowledge, such as natural pharmaceuticals or musical expressions, for wealth or prestige. To combat this, local cultures strive to keep their customs and knowledge within their community to avoid cultural appropriation and prevent others from economically benefiting from their traditions. Anthropologists and geographers have studied instances where local cultural knowledge, customs, and even names have been misappropriated. For example, the estate of Crazy Horse, a Lakota Indian leader, sued a brewery for producing Crazy Horse beer.
Commodification is the process by which something that was not previously considered an object for sale becomes a marketable commodity. This phenomenon affects local cultures in several ways. Firstly, their material culture, including jewelry, clothing, food, and games, can be commodified by both members and nonmembers. Similarly, their nonmaterial culture, such as religion, language, and beliefs, can be commodified, often by outsiders selling local spiritual and herbal remedies. Entire local cultures can also be commodified, as seen with tourist buses “observing” the Amish culture in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, or travel agencies offering trekking trips with “traditional” Nepalese guides on spiritual journeys through the Himalayas.
When commodification occurs, questions of authenticity arise. Typically, one image or experience is typecast as the “authentic” representation of that culture, and this is what tourists or buyers seek. However, local cultures are dynamic, and both places and people evolve over time. To genuinely experience a place’s authenticity, one must engage with its complexities directly rather than relying on stereotypes. An “authentic” local culture is not a single experience or image but a multifaceted and evolving entity.
Stereotyping local culture often confuses its members, as there is rarely a consensus on adhering strictly to traditional ways. Tourists in Lancaster County might be surprised to see some Amish using tractors. Similarly, trekkers from Europe, Canada, the U.S., or Australia in Nepal seek the “authentic” experiences promoted by travel websites, but these experiences may have been constructed by travel companies for tourist consumption.
