10.2.1 The First Agricultural Revolution: Origin and Diffusion of Agriculture

The word domestication comes from the Latin words Domesticus and Domus, referring to “belonging to the household” and “house.” In terms of agriculture, as defined by National Geographic, “domestication is the process of adapting wild plants and animals for human use. Domestic species are raised for food, work, clothing, medicine, and many other uses. Domesticated plants and animals must be raised and cared for by humans. Domesticated species are not wild.”

To domesticate a plant, seeds are gathered and planted in the ground instead of natural forms of distribution to potentially root and grow. Enough sun and water are provided to facilitate growth and then the plants are harvested. To domesticate an animal, wild animals are enclosed and provided a food source; some animals are more easily domesticated than others. Cross-breeding between particularly desirable plant and animal strains and species is common and new species may emerge over time entirely distinct from their wild predecessors.

The origin of agriculture goes back to prehistoric time, starting when humans domesticated plants and animals. The domestication of plants and animals as the origin of agriculture was a pivotal transition in human history, which occurred several times independently. Agriculture originated and spread in different regions (agricultural hearths) of the world, including the Middle East, Southwest Asia, Mesoamerica and the Andes, Northeastern India, North China, and East Africa, beginning as early as 12,000 – 10,000 years ago. People became sedentary, living in their villages, where new types of social, cultural, political, and economic relationships were created.

What did domestication help to directly bring about and set the conditions for? Among others, food as Currency

• Agriculture, i.e. the process of cultivating domesticated species)
• Tool development
• More permanently settled population
• Food surplus
• Specializations of tasks/labor/jobs away from exclusively agriculture
• Agricultural hearth areas (see Figure 10.2.1)
•  Urbanization (eventually)
• Trade
• Currency

The basic logic goes like this: By growing domesticated plants, people do not have to obtain nourishment by wandering around to follow their food source, which is the norm within hunting-gathering lifestyles. Instead, they stay in one area and produce enough food for themselves and exceed their sustenance, i.e. they produce a surplus. This is the first agricultural revolutionwhich refers to when the shift from hunting and gathering to agriculture occurred, about 10,000 years ago.

Having explored the “what” and “how” of agriculture, it is now essential to consider the “where”—specifically, the origins of domestication and agriculture. Examine the following information to identify the regions where major plants and animals were first domesticated. For additional context, consult a reference map online to locate these key agricultural hearths.

Domestication is not distributed entirely evenly across place. It is clustered in various hearths, a term referring to regions of the world where many species were domesticated. Check out the video below for a recap of information about domestication, agriculture, and hearth areas.

We can reasonably infer that the cultivation of plants and the domestication of animals resulted from a combination of environmental and cultural push factors. This dual influence is evidenced by the emergence of various agricultural hearths worldwide, each developing under distinct circumstances. From a climate science perspective, a significant catalyst for the advent of agriculture was the transition from the Pleistocene Ice Age to a warming period known as the interglacial period, occurring around 10,000 years ago.

10.2.1.1 Subsistence Agriculture

Subsistence agriculture replaced hunting and gathering in many parts of the globe. The term subsistence, when it relates to farming, refers to growing food only to sustain the farmers themselves and their families, consuming most of what they produce, without entering into the cash economy of the country. The farm size is small, 2-5 acres (1-2 hectares), but the agriculture is less mechanized; therefore, the percentage of workers engaged directly in farming is very high, reaching 50 percent or more in some developing countries (Figure 10.6). Climate regions play
an important role in determining agricultural regions. Farming activities range from shifting cultivation to pastoralism, both extensive forms that still prevail over large regions, to intensive subsistence.

10.2.1.2. Shifting Cultivation

Shifting cultivation, also known as slash-and-burn agriculture, is a form of subsistence agriculture that involves a kind of natural rotation system. Shifting cultivation is a way of life for 150-200 million people, globally distributed in the tropical areas, especially in the rain forests of South America, Central and West Africa, and Southeast Asia. The practices involve removing dense vegetation, burning the debris, clearing the area, known as swidden, and preparing it for cultivation.

Shifting cultivation can successfully support only low population densities and, as a result of rapid depletion of soil fertility, the fields are actively cultivated usually for three years. As a result, the infertile land has to be abandoned and another site has to be identified, starting again the process of clearing and planting. The slash-and-burn technique thus requires extensive acreage for new lots, as well as a great deal of human labor, involving at the same time a frequent gender division of labor. The kinds of crops grown can be different from region to region, dominated by tubers, sweet potatoes especially, and grains such as rice and corn. The practice of mixing different seeds in the same swidden in the warm and humid tropics is favorable for harvesting two or even three times per year. Yet, the slash-and-burn practice has some negative impacts on the environment, being seen as ecologically destructive especially for areas with vulnerable and endangered species.

10.2.1.3 Pastoral Nomadism

This type of agriculture is similar to subsistence agriculture except that the focus is on domesticated animals rather than crops. Most pastoral nomads exist in arid regions such as the Middle East and Northern Africa because the climate is too dry for subsistence agriculture. The primary purpose of raising animals is to provide milk, clothing, and tents. What is interesting with pastoral nomads is that most do not slaughter their herds for meat; most eat grains by trading milk and clothing for grain with local farmers. The type of animals chosen by nomads is highly dependent on the culture of the region, the prestige of animals, and the climate. Camels can carry heavy cargo and travel great distances with very little water; a great benefit in arid regions. Goats require more water, but can eat a larger variety of food than the camel. Most probably believe that nomads wander randomly throughout the area in search for water, but this is far from the truth. Rather pastoral nomads are very aware of their territory. In fact, each group controls a certain area and will rarely invade another area. Each area tends to be large enough to contain enough water and foliage for survival. Some nomad groups migrate seasonally between mountainous and low-lying regions; a process called transhumance.

10.2.2 Second Agricultural Revolution

The second agricultural revolution coincided with the Industrial Revolution; it was a revolution that would move agriculture beyond subsistence to generate the kinds of surpluses needed to feed thousands of people working in factories instead of in agricultural fields. Innovations in farming techniques and machinery that occurred in the late 1800s and early 1900s led to better diets, longer life expectancy, and helped sustain the second agricultural revolution. The railroad helped move agriculture into new regions, such as the United States Great Plains. Geographer John Hudson traced the major role railroads, and agriculture played in changing the landscape of that region from open prairie to individual farmsteads. Later, the internal combustible engine made possible the mechanization of machinery and the invention of tractors, combines, and a multitude of large farm equipment. New banking and lending practices helped farmers afford new equipment. In the 1800s, Johann Heinrich von Thünen (1983-1850) experienced the second agricultural revolution firsthand— because of which he developed his model (the Von Thünen Model), which is often described as the first effort to analyze the spatial character of economic activity. This was the birth of commercial agriculture (and hence the beginning of the Third Agricultural Revolution.

This video gives a quick and thorough overview of the second agricultural revolution:

Agricultural Diffusion

The Columbian Exchange was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World in the 15th and 16th centuries, related to European colonization and trade after Christopher Columbus’s 1492 voyage. The contact between the two areas circulated a wide variety of new crops and livestock, which supported increases in population in both hemispheres, although diseases initially caused precipitous declines in the numbers of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Traders returned to Europe with maize, potatoes, and tomatoes, which became very important crops in Europe by the 18th century.

10.2.3 Third Agricultural Revolution (aka The Green Revolution)

10.2.3.1 The Green Revolution

The Green Revolution refers to a period of significant agricultural transformation that began in the 1940s and continued into the late 20th century, marked by the introduction of high-yielding crop varieties, advanced agricultural practices, and modern technologies. Spearheaded by scientists like Norman Borlaug, this movement aimed to combat global hunger and improve food security, particularly in developing countries. Key innovations included the development of disease-resistant and high-yielding wheat and rice varieties, the widespread use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and the adoption of irrigation techniques and mechanized farming. The Green Revolution led to dramatic increases in crop production and agricultural productivity, significantly reducing famine and hunger in many parts of the world, although it also raised concerns about environmental sustainability and socio-economic disparities.

10.2.3.2 Agribusiness – Commercial agriculture

More developed nations tend to have commercial agriculture with a goal to produce food for sale in the global marketplace called agribusiness. Agribusiness companies control the development, planting, processing, and selling of food to the consumer.The food in commercial agriculture is also rarely sold directly to the consumer; rather, it is sold to a food-processing company where it is processed into a product. This includes produce and food products.

An interesting difference between emerging countries and most higher income countries regarding agriculture is the percent of the workforce that farm. In emerging countries, it is not uncommon that over half of the workforce are subsistence farmers. In higher income countries like the United States, the workforce that is farmers are far fewer than half. In the United States alone, less than 2 percent of the workforce are farmers, yet have the knowledge, skills, and technology to feed the entire nation.

10.2.3.3 Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)

GMOs foods are derived from organisms whose genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally through mating or natural recombination. This modification is achieved through genetic engineering techniques that allow for the introduction of new traits or characteristics, such as resistance to pests, tolerance to herbicides, improved nutritional content, or longer shelf life.The process of creating GMO foods involves identifying and isolating a specific gene that expresses a desirable trait in one organism, and then inserting that gene into the DNA of another organism. This can be done with plants, animals, or microorganisms. For example, a common GMO crop is Bt corn, which has been modified to express a protein from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, making it resistant to certain pests.

The updated infographic above illustrates the global distribution of biotech crops across various countries and regions. In 2019, 29 countries worldwide cultivated a total of 14 different biotech crops, with the United States, Brazil, Argentina, Canada, and India leading the pack. The USA maintained its position as the largest producer of biotech crops, covering 37.6% of the global biotech crop area. In 2019, the USA planted ten biotech crops, including maize, soybeans, cotton, alfalfa, canola, sugar beets, potatoes, papaya, squash, and apples.

Across Latin America, ten countries, spearheaded by Brazil, engaged in biotech crop cultivation in 2019, with biotech soybeans being the predominant crop. Brazil, a leading developing country in biotech agriculture, cultivated four main biotech crops: soybeans, maize, cotton, and sugarcane. In India, over six million farmers planted Bt cotton in 2019, solidifying India’s position as the fifth-largest producer of biotech crops globally.

GMOs are used in agriculture to enhance crop yield, reduce dependency on chemical pesticides, and improve the nutritional quality of food. Despite the potential benefits, GMO foods are the subject of ongoing debates concerning their safety, environmental impact, and ethical implications. In the United States, GMO crops are widely grown and accepted, with major crops including corn, soybeans, cotton, and canola. In Europe, the cultivation and sale of GMO foods are much more restricted. Only a few GMO crops are approved for cultivation, primarily for animal feed rather than direct human consumption. The European Union has stringent regulations on GMOs. Public opposition to GMOs is high in Europe, driven by concerns about food safety, environmental impact, and a preference for natural-organic- foods. Consequently, GMO labeling is mandatory, and many retailers and food producers choose to avoid GMOs altogether. This contrast between the US and Europe reflects differing public attitudes and regulatory philosophies toward food safety and environmental protection.

10.2.4 Agricultural Land Use

Geographers are concerned with understanding why things happen in geographical spaces. Johann Heinrich von Thünen (1783-1850) was a farmer on the north German plain, and he developed the foundation of rural land use theory. Because he was a keen observer of the landscape around him, he noticed that similar plots of land in different locations were often used for very different purposes. He concluded that these differences in land use between plots with similar physical characteristics might be the result of differences in location relative to the market. Thus, he went about trying to determine the role that distance from markets plays in creating rural land-use patterns. He was interested in finding laws that govern the interactions between agricultural prices, distance, and land use as farmers sought to make the greatest profit possible.

The von Thünen model is focused on how agricultural is distributed around a city in concentric circles.

The dot represents a city, and the first ring (white) is dedicated to market gardening and fresh milk production. That is because of milk products and garden crops, such as lettuce, spoil quickly. Remember that at the time von Thünen developed this model, there was no refrigeration, so it was necessary to get perishable produce to the market immediately. Because of this, producers of perishable crops were willing to outbid producers of less perishable crops to gain access to the land closest to the market. This means that land close to the community created a higher level of economic rent.

The second ring, von Thünen believed, would be dedicated to the production and harvest of forest products. This was because, in the early 19th century, people used wood for building, cooking, and heating. Wood is bulky and heavy and therefore difficult to transport. Still, it is not nearly as perishable as milk or fresh vegetables. For those reasons, von Thünen reasoned that wood producers would bid more for the second ring of land around the market center than all other producers of food and fiber, except for those engaged in the production of milk and fresh vegetables.

The third ring, von Thünen believed, would be dedicated to crop rotation systems. In his time, rye was the most important cash grain crop. Inside the third ring, however, von Thünen believed there would be differences in the intensity of cultivation.

The fourth ring would be dedicated to livestock ranching. Von Thünen reasoned that unlike perishable or bulky items, animals could be walked to the market. Additionally, products such as wool, hide, horn, and so on could be transported easily without concern about spoilage.

In von Thünen’ s model, wilderness bounded the outer margins of von Thünen’ s Isolated state. These lands, he argued, would eventually develop rent value, as the population of the state increased. Thus, in this fundamental theory, the only variable was the distance from the market.

Von Thünen’s concentric circles were the result of the limits he imposed on his model in order to remove all influences except for distance. For example, he did not consider soil quality, obstacles such as hills/mountains or rivers or climatic conditions. Once real-world influences are allowed to invade the model, the concentric land-use pattern does not remain in place. In addition, modern technology, such as advances in transportation systems, increasingly complicates the basic concentric circle model. Recent changes in the nature of demand for agricultural products also influence land-use patterns. However, it is interesting to note that according to an article in ScienceDirect, many organic farmers in lower income countries are placed within easy reach of larger settlements whereas in higher income countries, organic crop farmers tend to be located similarly to conventional farmers. This disparity suggests that farmers in poorer areas may lack access to certification and markets.

Changes in demand for farm products often have dramatic impacts on land uses. For example, the mid-Willamette Valley of Oregon provides insights into how changes in demand affect agricultural land uses. For years, the mid-Willamette Valley was the site of many medium-sized grain farms. The primary grain crops included wheat, barley, oats, Austrian peas, and clover. In addition, farmers in the region also produced row crops, orchard crops, hay, and grass seed. During the 1970s, in response to increasing demand, the price of grass seed increased dramatically. As a result, Willamette Valley farmers quickly changed their focus from the production of grain to grass seed. Soon after, a number of grain processing facilities closed, and grass seed cleaning, storage, and market facilities opened. There were other unexpected impacts as well. For example, Willamette Valley grain farms once provided excellent habitat for Chinese pheasants. Pheasants eat grain, but they do not eat grass seed. When the grain fields disappeared, so, too, did the pheasants. Like pheasants, people do not eat grass seed. On the other hand, oats, wheat, and barley are all food crops. Once a nation can meet its basic food needs, agriculture can meet other demands, such as the demand for Kentucky bluegrass for use on golf courses, lawns, and other landscaping. As incomes go up, the demand for food crops will grow proportionately. Eventually, however, when the demand for food is satiated, subsequent increases in income will no longer bring corresponding increases in the demand for food. This is the result of the elasticity of demand relative to changes in income. The measure of elasticity of demand is calculated by noting the amount of increase in demand for an item that a unit of increase in income generates. For example, luxury products such as expensive wines have a high elasticity of demand, whereas more common items such as rice have a low elasticity of demand. Once a family has all the rice it can normally eat, it will not purchase more as a result of more income. More income, however, would likely bring an increase in the consumption of prime cuts of beef or other such luxury foods.

New technologies in transportation, agricultural production, and the processing of food and fiber often have substantial impacts on the use of rural land. Transportation is particularly influenced by technological changes. For example, the construction of the rail lines that connected the Midwestern United States with the market centers of the East made it possible for farmers in Iowa, Illinois, and other prairie states to improve their profits by feeding the corn they grew to hogs which they then shipped to the markets in the east. This is because the value of a pound of pork has always been far greater than the value of a pound of corn. Thus, by feeding the corn to the hogs, and then shipping the hogs, the farmers could earn greater profits because the shipping costs of their product were lower. In a sense, the farmers were selling corn on the hoof. Without easy access to railheads, this profitable agricultural scheme would not have been possible.

Over the years, improvements in technologies have tended to drive down the relative costs associated with shipping farm produce. Furthermore, inventions such as refrigerated rail cars and trucks have eliminated some of the landuse constraints that once limited the locational choices of farmers who produced perishable goods. Less expensive haulage costs, decreased transit times, and better handling and processing methods have all served to make transportation systems more efficient and, hence, less expensive.

In theory, this should serve to reduce the importance of distance relative to other nondistance factors. Consider how far from the market a producer of fresh vegetables could locate in the early 19th century. The lack of all-weather roads and reliance on the transportation conveyances of the time (human and animal power) dictated a production location within a few miles of the market. The creation of all-weather roads that could be traversed by a horse and wagon, however, changed the situation. Without the roads, fresh vegetable growers would have been forced to pay high prices for land very near the market. With the roads, they were able to use less expensive land and still get their crops to market before spoilage made it impossible to sell them. If the creation of an all-weather road made such a difference in land uses, imagine the impacts of the refrigerated aircraft now used to deliver loads of fresh flowers. Currently, many of the fresh flowers sold in US supermarkets come to the United States from the Netherlands or Columbia via giant jet transport aircraft. Clearly, this technology has significantly altered the importance of distance relative to the production of fresh flowers.