9.1 The Study of Mass Media

The study of mass media and computer-mediated communication (CMC) has long held a central place in the field of communication. Mass media research emerged in the early 20th century alongside the rise of newspapers, radio, and later, television. Early scholars, influenced by the behavioral sciences, sought to understand the effects of media on audiences. The “hypodermic needle” or “magic bullet” theory, which assumed that media had direct, powerful effects on passive audiences, characterized much of the early thinking. This gave way in the 1940s and 1950s to more nuanced perspectives, such as the uses and gratifications approach, which viewed audiences as active participants who selected media to satisfy specific needs, and the two-step flow model, which emphasized the role of opinion leaders in mediating media influence (West & Turner, 2024).

The rapid development of digital technologies in the late 20th century shifted scholarly attention to new forms of communication. Computer-mediated communication emerged as a subfield in the 1980s and 1990s, initially examining text-based interactions in email, bulletin board systems, and chatrooms. Scholars explored how the lack of nonverbal cues in these environments impacted interpersonal communication, social identity, and group dynamics. Theories such as Social Presence Theory (Short, Williams, & Christie, 1976), Media Richness Theory (Daft & Lengel , 1986), and Social Information Processing Theory (Walter, 1992) provided early frameworks for understanding how individuals adapted to and made meaning through CMC.

As the internet evolved into a more interactive and participatory space, scholars began to study phenomena such as online communities, identity construction in virtual environments, and the implications of social media for public discourse. The line between mass media and interpersonal communication began to blur, especially with the advent of Web 2.0 platforms that enabled ordinary users to become content creators. This convergence prompted new theoretical developments and interdisciplinary approaches, incorporating insights from sociology, psychology, media studies, and information science. Today, the study of CMC and mass media remains vital to understanding how people interact, form relationships, share information, and engage in civic life in an increasingly digital and networked world.

9.1.1 The Internet and Digital Media Age

The “Internet and digital media age” began in 1990 and continues today. Whereas media used to be defined by their delivery systems (e.g., “radio”, or “newspaper”), digital media are all similarly constructed with digital, binary code made up of ones and zeros. Instead of paper being the medium for books, radio waves being the medium for sound broadcasting, and cables being the medium for cable television, a person can now read a book, listen to the radio, and access many television shows on the Internet. In short, digital media read, write, and store data (text, images, sound, and video) using numerical code, which revolutionized media more quickly than ever before (Biagi, 2007).

From the beginning, the Internet was a mass medium like none other. The majority of the content was user generated and the programs needed to create and navigate online content were in the public domain. This fusing of free access to information and user creativity still forms the basis of digital “new media” that are much more user controlled and personal. Demand for Internet access and more user-friendly programs created the consumer side of the net, and old media companies and regular people saw the web as another revenue generator.

Advertising online, however, is quite different from advertising in other media. Old media advertisers measure their success with ads based on a corresponding increase or decrease in sales—a method that is not very precise or immediate. Online advertisers, on the other hand, can know exactly how many people see their ads based on the number of site visitors, and they can measure how effective their ad is by how many people click on it. This can allow them to revise, pull, or buy more of an ad quickly based on the feedback. Additionally, certain online environments provide even more user data to advertisers, which allows them to target advertisements. If you, for example, search for “vacation rentals on Lake Michigan” using a search engine, ads for lake houses or vacation spots may also show up in your email. The social networks that people create on the Internet also create potential for revenue generation. In fact, many people have started to take advantage of this potential by monetizing their personal or social media sites.

9.2 Media and Representation

Another area of concern for those who study mass media is the representation of diversity (or lack thereof) in media messages. The FCC has identified program, ownership, and viewpoint diversity as important elements of a balanced mass media that serves the public good (Austin, 2011). This view was enforced through the Fairness Doctrine that was established in 1949. It lasted until the early 1980s. That is when the doctrine began to be questioned by those in favor of media deregulation. The Fairness Doctrine was eventually overturned in 1987, but the FCC tried in 2003 to reinstate policies that encourage minority ownership of media outlets, which they hoped in turn would lead to more diverse programming. It remains to be seen whether minority-owned media outlets will produce or carry more diverse programming, but it is important to note that the deregulation over the past few decades has led to a decrease in the number of owners of media outlets who come from minority groups.

Scholars have raised concerns about the number of characters from minority groups on television relative to the groups’ percentage of the population. Perhaps even more concerning is the type of characters that actors from minority groups play and the types of shows on which they appear. Whether we want them to be or not, the people we see featured in media messages, especially those who appear frequently on television, in movies, in magazines, or in some combination of the three, serve as role models for many that view them. These people help set the tone for standards of behavior, beauty, and intelligence, among other things.

Social learning theory claims that media portrayals influence our development of schemata or scripts, especially as children, about different groups of people (Bandura, 1977). For example, a person who grows up in a relatively homogenous white, middle-class environment can develop schemata about African-Americans and Latinas/Latinos based on how they are depicted in media messages. Since media messages, overall, are patterned representations, they cultivate within users a common worldview from the seeds that are planted by a relatively narrow set of content. For example, people in television shows are disproportionately portrayed as middle-class professionals. In reality, about 40 percent of people working in the United States work in management, professional, and related occupations (BLS, 2018).

Since 2010, however, there have been notable efforts—both within the entertainment industry and among media scholars—to address and improve the representation of historically marginalized groups. Movements such as #OscarsSoWhite, #MeToo, and #RepresentationMatters have amplified public awareness and pressured media producers to diversify casting and storytelling. Streaming platforms like Netflix, Hulu, and Amazon Prime have also contributed to increased representation by supporting content from independent creators and global voices, allowing for a wider range of perspectives and lived experiences to be shared. Shows like Black-ish and Abbott Elementary have pushed boundaries and garnered critical acclaim for nuanced portrayals of race, gender, class, identity, and belonging (Shabo, 2023).

Contemporary communication researchers are examining not only who is represented, but how, in what contexts, and with what impact on audiences. Scholars use both quantitative content analysis and qualitative methods such as textual analysis and audience studies to explore shifts in media portrayals and audience reception. There’s also growing attention to intersectionality and how overlapping identities—such as race, gender, sexuality, and disability—are (or are not) reflected in mainstream media. In addition, researchers are investigating how algorithmic curation on digital platforms influences visibility and representation, as well as the role of social media in empowering underrepresented groups to create and disseminate their own media content.

These developments reflect a more critical and multifaceted approach to media and representation, suggesting that while progress has been made, the field continues to evolve in response to social movements, technological changes, and the ongoing need for equity and inclusion in mass communication.

9.3 Developing Media Literacy

Media literacy involves our ability to critique and analyze the potential impact of the media. The word literacy refers to our ability to read and comprehend written language (Livingstone, 2004), but just as we need literacy to be able to read, write, and function in our society, we also need to be able to read media messages. To be media literate, we must develop a particular skill set that is unfortunately not taught in a systematic way like reading and writing. The quest to make a more media-literate society is not new. You may be surprised to learn that the media-literacy movement began in the 1930s when Clyde Miller, a journalist and author received funding from department store magnate Edward Filene to promote curriculum materials that would identify propaganda techniques. It is estimated that over one million students used these materials within the first three years of its creation (RobbGrieco & Hobbs, 2013). Despite the fact that this movement has been around since the 1930s, many people still do not know about it.

Media literacy is not meant to censor or blame the media, nor does it advocate for us to limit or change our engagement with the media in any particular way. Instead, media literacy ties in with critical thinking and listening. Media literacy skills are important because media outlets are “culture makers,” meaning they reflect much of current society but also reshape and influence sociocultural reality and real-life practices. Some may mistakenly believe that frequent exposure to media or that growing up in a media-saturated environment leads to media literacy. Knowing how to use technology to find and use media is different from knowing how to analyze it. Like other critical thinking skills, media literacy does not just develop; it must be taught, learned, practiced, and reflected on.

We learn much through the media that we do not have direct experience with, and communication and media scholars theorize that we tend to believe media portrayals are accurate representations of life. However, the media represents race, gender, sexuality, ability, and other cultural identities in biased and stereotypical ways that often favor dominant identities (Allen, 2011). Since the media influences our beliefs, attitudes, and expectations about difference, it is important to be able to evaluate critically the mediated messages that we receive. The goal of media literacy is not to teach you what to think but to teach you how you can engage with, interpret, and evaluate media in a more informed manner. Media literacy is also reflective in that we are asked to be accountable for those choices we make in regards to media by reflecting on and being prepared to articulate how those choices fit in with our own belief and value systems.

There are standard questions you can ask yourself to help you get started in your media criticism and analysis. There are no “true” or “right/wrong” answers to many of the questions we ask during the critical thinking process. Engaging in media literacy is more about expanding our understanding and perspective rather than arriving at definitive answers. The following questions will help you hone your media-literacy skills:

Table 1. Key Questions to Ask When Analyzing Media Messages (NAMLE, 2017)

After asking these questions, media-literate people should be able to use well-reasoned arguments and evidence (not just opinion) to support their evaluations. People with media-literacy skills also know that their evaluations may not be definitive. Although this may seem like a place of uncertainty, media-literate people actually have more control over how they interact with media messages, which allows them to use media to their advantage, whether that is to become better informed or just to enjoy their media experience.

9.4 Social Media

Media and mass media have long been discussed as a unifying force. The shared experiences of 1) national mourning after President Kennedy was assassinated in 1963, and 2) after the storming of the U.S. Capitol building on January 6, 2021 were facilitated through media. Online media, in particular, is characterized by its connectivity.

Traditional mass media, such as radio, television, newspapers, books, and movies, used to operate according to the linear model of communication. In this model, a large, somewhat unknown audience received messages via a one-way communication channel sent from one place. Online and new media now connects mass media outlets to people and allows people to connect back to them (think of comments, reposts, and DMs). The basis for this connectivity is the Internet, which connects individual computers, smartphones, and other devices in an interactive web. This web of connected personal media devices like computers and smartphones facilitates and defines social media. Technology has allowed for mediated social interaction since the days of the telegraph, but these connections were not at the mass level they are today. Therefore, even if we think of the telegram as a precursor to a “tweet,” we can still see that the potential connection points and the audience size are much different. While a telegraph went to one person, as of October 2024, Cristiano Ronaldo (futbol superstar from Portugal) has over 600 million followers through his accounts on Instagram, X, and Facebook. Social media does not just allow for connection; it allows us more control over the quality and degree of connection that we maintain with others (Siapera, 2012).

The potential for social media was realized under the conditions of what is called Web 2.0, which refers to a new way of using the connectivity of the Internet to bring people together for collaboration and creativity—to harness collective intelligence (O’Reilly, 2012). This entails using the web to collaborate on projects and problem solving rather than making and protecting one’s own material (Boler, 2008). Much of this was achieved through platforms and websites such as Napster, Flickr, YouTube, and Wikipedia that encouraged and enabled user-generated content. It is important to note that user-generated content and collaboration have been a part of the World Wide Web for decades, but much of it was in the form of self-publishing information such as user reviews, online journal entries/ diaries, and later blogs, which cross over between the “old” web and Web 2.0.

The most influential part of the new web is social networking sites (SNSs), which allow users to build a public or semipublic profile, create a network of connections to other people, and view other people’s profiles and networks of connections (Boyd & Ellison, 2008). Although SNSs have existed for over a decade, earlier iterations such as Friendster and Myspace have given way to the giant that is Facebook. Although this might not be the case with your demographic, as of writing in 2024, Facebook, reports more than 3 billion monthly active users (not necessarily unique users). The popularity of Facebook is quickly followed by YouTube, WhatsAPP, Instagram, and TikTok. By the time you are reading this chapter there might be a new app that has moved to the top of the list.

In any case, the ability to self-publish information, likes/dislikes, status updates, profiles, and links allows people to construct their own life narrative and share it with other people. Likewise, users can follow the narratives of others in their network as they are constructed. The degree to which we engage with others’ narratives varies based on the closeness of the relationship and situational factors, but SNSs are used to sustain strong, moderate, and weak ties with others (Richardson & Hessey, 2009).

The Pros and Pitfalls of Social Media

While social media has amplified marginalized voices, offered platforms for global activism (e.g., #MeToo, #BlackLivesMatter, #StopAsianHate), and fostered community support, it has also introduced new concerns:

• Echo chambers and filter bubbles: Algorithms often show users content that aligns with their existing beliefs, which can limit exposure to diverse perspectives and reinforce bias.
• Misinformation and disinformation: False or misleading content spreads quickly on social media, particularly during elections or public health crises.
• Mental health effects: Studies suggest links between excessive social media use and increased anxiety, depression, and loneliness, especially among teens and young adults.
• Surveillance capitalism: Social media companies collect and sell massive amounts of user data, raising ethical concerns about privacy and consent.

Despite these challenges, social media remains a dominant force in communication. It’s essential to view it critically—not only in terms of what content is shared, but also how platforms shape behavior, values, and visibility.

Wrap Up

As we have seen, the study of mass media and computer-mediated communication has evolved significantly over the past century—from early models of media effects to contemporary concerns about access, representation, and participation in a digital world. Advances in technology, shifts in audience behavior, and ongoing social movements have challenged scholars and media consumers alike to critically examine how media shape our identities, relationships, and public discourse. Whether examining the structure of the internet, the dynamics of advertising, or portrayals of race, gender, and class in popular culture, communication scholars bring essential tools for understanding the powerful role media play in society.

References

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NAMLE. (2017). Key Questions to Ask When Analyzing Media Messages. Adapted by Faith Rogow & Cindy Scheibe from NAMLE’s Core Principles for Media Literacy Education (April 2007). www.NAMLE.net/coreprinicples Reproduction for educational use is encouraged.

NAMLE. (2022). Media Literacy Defined. Retrieved from https://namle.net/resources/media-literacy-defined

O’Reilly, T. (2005, September 30). What is Web 2.0: Design patterns and business models for the next generation of software. https://www.oreilly.com/pub/a//web2/archive/what-is-web-20.html

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Tables & Figures

Table 1. Key Questions to Ask When Analyzing Media Messages. Adapted by Faith Rogow & Cindy Scheibe from NAMLE’s Core Principles for Media Literacy Education (April 2007). www.NAMLE.net/coreprinicples Reproduction for educational use is encouraged.

Figure 9.1: Blue-collar workers make up a bigger proportion of the working class than portrayed on television. Ahsanization ッ. 2018. Unsplash license. https://unsplash.com/photos/wpvEMgFV4w0

Figure 9.2: Social media is a way for large groups of people to be connected. Nathan Dumlao. 2020. Unsplash license. https://unsplash.com/photos/kLmt1mpGJVg